Behaviorism
Revolution
Mediation Theory advanced by Charles Osgood（調和理論）:covert and invisible learning process(psychological)
Critics:
(1) failing to describe
(a) the nature of language learning
(b) the relationship between meaning and utterances（強調心理過程）
(a) the nature of language learning
(b) the relationship between meaning and utterances（強調心理過程）
**act as a backdrop(背景) for cognitive:還是…的本質
The Nativist Approach
1. species-specific: 考慮學習者的年齡、生理因素的發展-->CPH (Critical Period Hypothesis，關鍵期假設說：小孩在一定年齡學習語言比較好)（例如先講媽媽，後講爸爸，因為比較好發音）
**台大：請證明越早學語言越好？用語言理論證明（贊成:Nativist Approach)
**應該還在慮社會、文化、動機因素
補充：CPH (Critical Period Hypothesis，關鍵期假設說)
(A) the earlier, the better (1990年代安親班都有附加英語補習班)
(B) critical age: puberty(青少年)
success//puberty//failure(過了一個年紀就沒辦法達到native-like pronunciation)
*缺點：
lack of (a) socio-affective factors (b) motivation
2. self-generated cognition(小孩學習會自己產生規則)
代表實驗：a wug test (Jean Berko, 1958)
(innate feature by Chomsky)
* lack of (a) interaction and (b) peer assistance
3. self evaluation:(學習者有時會自我察覺語言結構的「適切性」，尤其是分析行的學習者)
Parallel Distributed Processing, PDP(1990)
句子分成好幾個單位(unit)。學習語言時必須同時考量語言、心理、社會因素
information is processed simultaneously
*Connectionism(聯結理論): multiple connections are activated at the same time(學一個東西會同時聯結其他的意義或是相關的概念，-ed:過去式、被動、分詞)
The Functional Approach
1. function =~ language use =~ the meaning of language (elementary teaching won't explain why)
*language <—> language form
**the meaning of language<—>the grammar rules of language (會說、解釋＋理解)
2. Think of "function", we should at the same time think of (a) social interaction (b) communicative values (溝通要知道隨著情境其中隱含的意義和目的)
*Lois Bloom, 1971
**Syntax:(Discourse functional approach)
1. formal syntax
2. functional syntax:會因為情境不同而有不同意義
He cut a cake with a knife.
formal: S + V+O + prep. phrase
functional: agent(行為者) + action(動作) + instrument (用…器具)
***in concert with 隨著…發生
清大：理論導向
找高標、低標，看考古題選出走向，常考領域要多看
熟讀語概應用語言學的部分
每天讀一點China post, Taipei Times
翻譯看每間學校不同的面相
先考托福、全民英檢、多益、雅思
*國北教考古題：如果你要教國小英語，你要怎麼教？請設計一個教案
Chapter 2
Page 6, Age Factors
CPH(Critical Period Hypothesis)
1. Advocates: Lennerberg(1967, 生物學家)
2. Features:
(1) a "biological" timetable (the relationship of age and language)
(2) stimulated (at the right time)—>success in language learning
Success<—"Puberty14-15"—>Failure
（在「適當」時機給予訓練：青少年時期-->比較容易成功）
3. Evidence: supporting CPH
(1) neurological (神經語言學): lateralization
左腦：語言、分析、語意
右腦：情緒、藝術、音樂
（五歲以前分化不明顯，另一腦可去幫忙掌控過程）
*國小課程常常透過音樂或是藝術的內容去刺激左腦發展（語言學習）
(2) phonological: native-like pronunciation (the latter, the worse) why?
(a) lateralization (b) the overt application of the native language rules to the foreign language learning
成年人喜歡用母語發音規則去學習其他語言的發音
(3) cognitive: the Intellectual Development by Piaget (1972)
(a) sensorimotor stage (birth to 2)
(b) pre-operational stage (2 to 7, 前運思期): Children can't accept abstract concept. (i) Topics: related to young kids' daily events (ii) Analysis of grammars should be avoided. （避免抽象敘述）
(c) operational stage (7-16, 運思期): The abstract explanations of rules can be acceptable. ***
*Jean Piaget & Vygotsky
** on the basis of= in accordance with = according to = in lieu of = on the grounds of 以…為根據/理論
***理論規則不宜過重
****contention=argument=statement 理論
(4) affective: affective domain
Not consciously aware(younger)<— egocentricity —> consciously aware(older)
(5) linguistic: from Bilingualism
coordinate bilinguals* <— puberty—> to use one meaning system(native language rules) to acquire two language system***
*兩種語言系統可以「任意掌控」：隨著不同的社會情境（正式、非正式）選擇適切的語言
** be facile at = be skillful at
***小孩用兩種語言模式去學英語，所以比較不會有中式英文的問題
Q2: Conflicting evidence of CPH
1. affective: the identity of the languages being studied(對目前學習語言的認同感)
2. input: The more input is given the more success one is ti achieve. (給予語言刺激量的多寡, language files)
3. social:
(1) expectation (2) status —> stimulate someone to learn English
4. motivation(most important): high motivation —> successful learning
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