suprasegmental phonemes (suprasegmentals, prosodic features韻律特徵)
- stress(accent, force)
- intonation (pitch change)
- timing
- rhythm
- juncture (pause or oral punctuation)
- Stress has the syntactic and semantic function of distinguishing nouns from verbs and their meanings.
- Stress is the feature of giving vocal prominence to a syllable or a word.
- It is stress that determine the rhythm of an English utterance.
- The misplacement of stress in an English word often causes misunderstanding.
LEVELS OF STRESS
- monosyllabic words (monosyllables)
- polysyllabic words (polysyllables)
- Primary stress
- Secondary stress
- Tertiary stress
- Weak stress
A syllable with primary stress is called strong, stressed syllable.
A syllable with weak stress is called weak, unstressed syllable.
four common systems
1. The IPA system
2. The K.K. system
3. The T.S. system
4. The Prator & Robinett's system
PHONETIC EFFECTS OF STRESS
FOUR FEATURES
1. loudness
2. Length
3. Pitch (3 levels, e.g. uni-2-ver-3-sity-1-)
4. vowel quality
(1) vowel reduction (obscure and reduced, e.g. unstressed vowels)
(2) Long vowels and diphthongs are fully diphthongized (change from a simple vowel to a diphthong; "This vowel diphthongized in Germanic") under the primary stress, but are shorter and become more like simple vowels under the secondary stress.
(3) The unstressed vowel before /r/ is reduced to the unstressed schwar /er/.
5. coarticulation and assimilation 協同構音與同化作用: A less stressed syllable may undergo more assimilatory changes. (e.g. little)
PATTERN OF STRESS
1. word stress pattern
(1) Bisyllable nouns usually have primary stress on the first syllable.
(2) Bisyllable verbs and adjectives contain one stressed syllable which is the historical word root from which verbs and adj. are derived. Stress is usually fall upon the root syllable.
(3) Bisyllable nouns and verbs which are spelled alike are contrasted by stress. (Noun the first, verb the second): e.g. conduct, contest, permit, suspect
(4) Bisyllable verbs endings with -ate is stressed on the -ate. (e.g. relate, equate, negate)
(5) A majority of three-syllable nouns and adjectives have the primary stress on the first syllable.
(6) 多於三音節且帶有-ate結尾的的形容詞或名詞，重音放在倒數第三的音節。
(7) 多於三音節且帶有-ate or -ize結尾的動詞，重音放在倒數第三個音節。 (e.g. articulate, operate, publicize, utilize...)
(8) 多於三音節且帶有-phy結尾的名詞，重音放在倒數第三個音節。 (e.g. geography, photography...)
(9) 若是藉由改變字尾而產生的衍生字(derivative)，重音通常和原字相同。(e.g. agree, agreement); 特殊的名詞字尾如 -tion, -sion, -ity, -ety, -ian, -ion, -logy和特殊的形容詞字尾如 -al, -ic, -ical, -ial, -ual, -ient, -iar, -ior, -eous 通常把重音放在特殊字尾的前一個音節。 (suggestion, accidental)
(10) 特殊的名詞字尾如-ee, -eer, -ique, -oo, oon, -self, -selves, teen通常把重音放在這些特殊字尾上。 (e.g. bamboo, employee)
2. phrase stress pattern
- A phrase is a group of words which represent a grammatical unit, such as a noun phrase, a verb phrase, a compound word, etc.
- Two-word verbs are verbs made up of one verb plus an adverb, written as two words.
(1) adjective-noun phrase: primary stress on the noun, secondary stress on the adjective (e.g. A dark room)
(2) compound nouns (two noun, a.+n.→one noun): primary stress on the first noun, tertiary stress on the second noun (e.g. a darkroom)
(3) 動詞+介副詞片語(可拆式動詞片語)：tertiary stress on the verb, primary stress on the adverb (e.g. put on, put it on 動詞片語靠介係詞改變意思); noun objects following and in between: primary stress in the noun objects, secondary stress on the adverb, tertiary stress on the verb (adverb is reduced to secondary stress; e.g. put on your shoes)
(4) 動詞+介系詞片語(不可拆式動詞片語：primary stress on the verb; weak stress on the preposition (e.g. look at; 動詞傳遞比較大的意義); followed by prepositions and noun objects: the primary stress on the noun, secondary stress on the verb (e.g. look at the bird)
(5) compound verb (an adverb+ verb; written as one word): tertiary stress on the adverb, primary stress on the verb (e.g. overlook, understand)
3. sentence stress pattern
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